Each herder group keeps three to four dogs for the safety of livestock, protection from wild animals such as common leopard, wolf and jackal in the lower regions, and snow leopard and feral dogs in the alpine regions. During their stay in the valley, the shepherds use the available natural resources of the area at a nominal price. The price, locally known as charan , is paid to village panchayat an institution of self-government for the rural areas.
The average charan is INR 5. The shepherd giving charan to panchayat of Gamsali village stays at an adjoining alpine area locally known as Dhaman payar. In the year , only one such shepherd group occupied the Dhaman payar. Shepherds, who paid charan to the Niti village panchayat , spend their summers in areas locally known as Kalajowar, Gothing and Geldung areas.
They buy their food rations here, since Niti is the last village on the Indian side on this route. Geldung area, with an elevation range from 4, to 5, m, has three mountain passes where these shepherds go for grazing: Niti pass, Lepcha pass and Selakang pass. Other than these passes, a few shepherds one or two groups also tend to stay in adjoining areas locally known as Laldhang and Keolangmandi. For sustenance while they are in the alpine valley, the shepherds sell sheep and goats to the resident local villagers which they buy to sacrifice during religious ceremonies and sometimes only for meat.
The shepherds also sell wool to the villagers, and sometimes part of charan is paid in the form of wool. The black-coloured wool is preferred by the buyers as no money is spent for dyeing, and it is preferred by the buyers for making pakki a type of local garment for the women. The shepherds start their return down to their villages in late August to early September, using the same route as on the way up. The duration of their stay in Niti valley depends on the availability of fodder and mainly on climatic conditions, namely precipitation.
Generally, the shepherds stay in the valley for three to four months, from late June to August. Over their usual stay and during their movement from plains to alpine regions and back, the shepherds come across many challenges, such as killing of livestock by wild carnivores e.
There are various environmental issues linked with grazing, fodder and firewood collection from the forests. Moreover, there is an increasing danger of human-wildlife conflict due to habitat fragmentation and destruction by humans, and resource competition, as the forests and alpine meadows provide habitat to many wild mountain ungulates and carnivores including bharal Pseudois nayaur , Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus , leopard Panthera pardus and snow leopard Uncia uncia.
The areas which experience maximum grazing pressure due to transhumant pastoralists are Kuari pass and Tapovan Figure 2. Kuari pass 3, m is a junction where most of the shepherds from lower altitudes camp for a few days to rest and then disperse to different alpine areas. Tapovan, a small town, is the last permanent village on the route to Niti valley. It acts as a congregation place where the shepherds replenish their stocks, as well as gather information regarding the status of alpine regions and the courses taken by other shepherds.
They also do business with the local villagers by selling their animals. Shepherds take the motor road from Tapovan to their summer camps Figure 3 and halt at several places at night. The routes taken by the eight shepherds and the use percentage of different stopovers are indicated in Figure 2.
Percent use of different places and routes followed by transhumant herders visiting the Niti valley. The different places and routes based on interviews conducted. Map not to scale. Use percentage is the percentage of herders using a place. A flock of goats resting on the highway in day time. They move in the evening through villages just to avoid conflicts.
Our findings suggest that Tapovan and Kuari pass are preferred stopovers for pastoralist groups migrating to the Niti valley during summer. Hence, there is a chance that these areas are comparatively more affected due to grazing, trampling and tree lopping by these transhumant pastoralists. These areas also serve as potential markets for the transhumant pastoralists, where they can sell their animals and animal-derived products like wool to the local inhabitants.
Awasthi A: Ecological Impact of anthropogenic pressures on high altitude forests along Bhagirathi Catchment. D Thesis. Google Scholar. Animal Conservation , 7: — Article Google Scholar. Bhasin V: Pastoralists in India. Journal of Human Ecology , 33 3 — Mountain Research and Development , 5 3 — Chatterjee PC: Nomadic graziers of Garhwal.
In Studies in Himalayan Ecology and developmental strategies. Edited by: Singh T. V, Kaur J. Lekapana, P. Socioeconomic impacts of drought on pastoralists, their coping strategies, and government interventions in Marsabit county, Kenya. Accessed 24 May Little, P. Debsu, and W. How pastoralists perceive and respond to market opportunities: The case of the Horn of Africa. Lugusa, K. Fodder production as an adaptation strategy in the drylands: A case study of producer groups in Baringo County, Kenya.
Accessed 17 Dec McCabe, T. Smith, P. Leslie, and A. Livelihood diversification through migration among a pastoral people: Contrasting case studies of Maasai in Northern Tanzania. Human Organization 73 4 : — Author. Munishi, E. Accessed 28 Nov Muricho, D. David, and O. The role of pastoralists indigenous knowledge and practices in reducing household food insecurity in West Pokot, Kenya: A binary probit analysis. Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics 10 7 : — Mwita, M.
Toponymy, pioneership, and the politics of ethnic hierarchies in the spatial organization of British colonial Nairobi. Nabenyo, E. Forced Migration Review. Accessed 16 Jan Njeru, T. Collective land tenure is under threat in Kenya. Why it needs to be protected. The Conversation. Accessed 12 Jan Njiru, B.
Climate change, resource competition, and conflict amongst pastoral communities in Kenya. Nkedianye, D. Ogutu, M. Said, S. Kifugo, J. Van Gardingen, and R. Comparative social demography, livelihood diversification and land tenure among the Maasai of Kenya and Tanzania. Nyariki, and D. The value of pastoralism in Kenya: Application of total economic value approach.
Oba, G. Ochieng, S. Pastoral education: The missing link in Uganda education system. Ogara, D. Assessing the fluxes and impacts of drought-induced migration of pastoralist communities into urban areas: A case of Marsabit Town, Northern Kenya.
Accessed 7 Mar Ogutu, J. Piepho, M. Said, G. Ojwang, L. Njino, S. Kifugo, and P. Extreme wildlife declines and concurrent increase in livestock numbers in Kenya: What are the causes? Omollo, E. Analysis of fodder production and marketing in the rangelands of southern Kenya. Accessed 20 Feb Onono, J. Mutua, P. Kitala, and P. Knowledge of pastoralists on livestock diseases and exposure assessment to brucellosis within rural and peri-urban areas in Kajiado, Kenya. Opiyo, F. Wasonga, M.
Nyangito, J. Schilling, and R. Drought adaptation and coping strategies among the Turkana pastoralists of Northern Kenya. Pas, A. Governing grazing and mobility in the Samburu lowlands, Kenya. Reid, R. Fernandez-Gimenez, and K. Dynamics and resilience of rangelands and pastoral peoples around the globe. Ren, H. Guo, Z. Zhang, L. Kisovi, and P. Population density and spatial patterns of informal settlements in Nairobi, Kenya.
Reynolds, J. Grainger, D. Smith, G. Bastin, L. Garcia-Barrios, R. Fernandez, M. Janssen, N. Jurgens, R. Scholes, A. Veldkamp, M. Verstraete, G. Von Maltitz, and P. Scientific concepts for an integrated analysis of desertification. Accessed 8 Dec Roessler, R. Mpouam, T. Muchemwa, and E.
Emerging development pathways of urban livestock production in rapidly growing West Africa cities. Sustainability 8 11 : Urban areas and cities Act, No 13 of Kenya urbanization review. Document No. Washington, D. World Bank Group.
Said, M. Ogutu, S. Kifugo, O. Makui, R. Reid, and J. Effects of extreme land fragmentation on wildlife and livestock population abundance and distribution. Siele, D. Reaching pastoralists with formal education: A distance-learning strategy for Kenya. Accessed 13 Feb Silvestri, S. Bryan, C. Ringler, M.
Herrero, and B. Climate change perception and adaptation of agro-pastoral communities in Kenya. Regional Environmental Change 12 4 : — Snorek, J. Moser, and F. The production of contested landscapes: Enclosing the pastoral commons in Niger. Tessema, W. Ingenbleek, and H. Refining the smallholder market integration framework: A qualitative study of Ethiopian pastoralists. Tully, T. Analysis of the Kenyan livestock market and feasibility study of a livestock business.
Global drylands: A UN system-wide response report. Combating desertification in Kenya: Emerging lessons from empowering local communities. UN Development Programme. Global Environment Outlook 6. UN Environment Programme.
Accessed on 10 Jan Van Zanten, H. Mollenhorst, C. Klootwijk, C. Global food supply: Land use efficiency of livestock systems. Wilson, R. Domestic livestock in African cities: Production, problems and prospects. Download references. The authors are grateful to the World Bank through the Kenya Climate Smart Agricultural Project KCSAP for funding this research, to the pastoralists in Nairobi City who provided information for this study and to the anonymous reviewers and their valuable comments that improved the quality of this paper.
Our sincere gratitude also goes to Dr. Henry Mwololo for his encouragement, and self-less guidance in handling the data for this study, which has led to the success of this manuscript. Box , Kangemi, Nairobi, Kenya. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. WMW contributed to designing and drafting the concept for this study, exploration survey, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation, drafting of the manuscript and submitting the approved version.
OVW, OKK and SK contributed to the initial design and concept drafting, guidance during the fieldwork process, data collection and data interpretation and supervised drafting and revising of the final manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript for submission. Correspondence to Walter Magero Wafula. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Reprints and Permissions. Wafula, W. Factors influencing migration and settlement of pastoralists in Nairobi City, Kenya.
Pastoralism 12, 2 Download citation. Received : 22 March Accepted : 19 June Published : 13 January Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.
Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search all SpringerOpen articles Search. Download PDF. Abstract Pastoralism is globally recognized as the backbone of the economy in the vast arid and semi-arid rangelands. Introduction Pastoralism is widely accepted as the most reliable economic activity and efficient use of the scattered and variable rangeland resources Freier et al.
The study area. Full size image. Table 1 Description of variables and expected influence Full size table. Results Results of the multi-collinearity test The VIF for the predictor variables in the model ranged between 1. Table 2 Multi-collinearity test for predictor variables in the model Full size table.
Table 3 Characteristics of sampled households Full size table. Table 4 Logit model estimates for pastoralist migration to the city Full size table. Table 5 Opportunities and challenges encountered in the city Full size table. Discussion Particulars of permanent and temporary migrants The results of this study indicated that the proportion of the temporary migrants in Nairobi City was higher than that of their permanent counterparts.
Opportunities and challenges encountered in Nairobi City The findings of this study indicated that pastoralists who have migrated in Nairobi City mainly encountered a number of income-generating opportunities from trade in livestock, livestock manure, cattle milk and employment both in the formal and informal sectors. Availability of data and materials All data generated and analysed in this study is presented in the published article. Notes 1. References Abebe, A. Article Google Scholar Alarcon, P.
Article Google Scholar Ameso, E. Article Google Scholar Amwata, D. Article Google Scholar Bekker, S. Article Google Scholar Boles, O. Article Google Scholar Brussels. Keep yourself updated with all latest news and also read articles from teachers which will help you to improve your studies, increase motivation level and promote faster learning. NCERT now offers online courses for Ministry of Education, Govt of India vide letter No.
This festival showcases the Unseen passages may contain one or many paragraphs. This is one of the important yet easy parts for a student to get marks.
0コメント